Vol 35 No 1 (2016)
Language
How to Cite
Divya Seth, MB, P., & R, M. (1). Verbal and Non-verbal Measures of Rapid Automatized Processing - Implications for Reading. Journal of All India Institute of Speech and Hearing, 35(1), 30-36. Retrieved from http://203.129.241.91/jaiish/index.php/aiish/article/view/922
Abstract
In the past few decades, Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) has evolved as an ecient clinical tool to assess rapid processing and predict later reading abilities in young children. Over the years, several variants
of the task came into existence such as inclusion of variety of stimuli, varying picture size, dierent response modalities etc. However, very few have addressed the in uence of response modality and its relation with reading. This study aimed to compare rapid processing skills in typical children in verbal and nonverbal modalities and its relation with their reading abilities. Thirty typically developing children in the age range of 5-7 years participated in the study. Picture arrays of ve common nouns served as the stimuli. Task comprised of picture naming and picture pointing. The results revealed that there was no signicant dierence in the processing of nouns between the two modalities. In addition, rapid processing in both verbal and non-verbal modalities was found to have a signicant positive correlation with reading. Overall, the results point to the tility of non-verbal task as a measure of rapid processing and to predict later reading skills in children with limited verbal abilities.
References
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(2001). The double de cit theory of reading does not
t all. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16,
152-160.
Allor, J. H. (2002). The relationships of phonemic aware-
ness and rapid naming to reading development. Learn-
ing Disabilities Quarterly, 25(1), 47-57.
Aroujo, S., Inacio, F., Francisco, Faisca, L., Peterson, K.
M., & Reis, A. (2011). Component processes subserving
rapid automatized naming in dyslexic and non-dyslexic
readers. Dyslexia, 17(3), 242-255.
Asta ev, S. V., Shulman, G. L., Stanley, C. M., Snyder, A.
Z., Van Essen, D. C., & Corbetta, M. (2003). Func-
tional organization of human intraparietal and frontal
cortex for attending, looking, and pointing. The Jour-
nal of Neuroscience, 23(11), 4689-4699.
Baldo, J. V., Arevalo, A., Patterson, J. P., & Dronkers,
N. F. (2013). Grey and white matter correlates of pic-
ture naming: evidence from a voxel-based lesion anal-
ysis of the Boston Naming Test. Cortex, 49(3), 658-
667.
Biddappa, P. M., Seth, D., & Manjula, R. (2016). Rapid au-
tomatized processing of nouns and verbs in typical chil-
dren. International Journal on Disability and Human
Development. doi: 10.1515/ijdhd-2016-0030.
Bornstein, M. H., Cote, L. R., Maital, S., Painter, K., Par, S-
Y., Pascual, L., et al. (2004). Cross-linguistic analysis of
vocabulary in young children: Spanish, Dutch, French,
Hebrew, Italian, Korean, and American English. Child
Development, 75(4), 1115-39.
Bowers, P. (1996). The e ects of single and double de cits
in phonemic awareness and naming speed on new tests
of orthographic knowledge. Paper presented to the An-
nual Meeting of the Society for the Scienti c Study of
Reading held in New York
Bowers, P. G. (2001). Exploration of the basis for rapid nam-
ing's relationship to reading. In M.Wolf (Ed.), Dyslexia,
Fluency and the Brain (pp. 41-64). Timonium, MD:
York Press.
Bowers, P., & Wolf, M. (1993). Theoretical links among
naming speed, precise timing mechanisms and ortho-
graphic skills in dyslexia. Reading and Writing: An
Interdisciplinary Journal, 5, 69-85.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. (1985). Rhyme and reason in
reading and spelling (No. 1). University of Michigan
Press.
Castles, A., & Coltheart, M. (2004). Is there a causal link
from phonological awareness to success in learning to
read? Cognition, 91(1), 77-111.
Catts, H. W., Gillispie, M., Leonard, L. B., Kail, R. V., &
Miller, C. A. (2002). The role of speed of processing,
rapid naming, and phonological awareness in reading
achievement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(6),
510-525.
Cutting, L. E., & Denckla, M. B. (2001). The relationship
of rapid serial naming and word reading in normally de-
veloping readers: an exploratory model. Reading and
Writing, 14(7-8), 673-705.
De Langavant, L. C., Remy, P., Trinkler, I., McIntyre, J.,
Dupoux, E., Berthoz, A., & Bachoud-Levi, A. C. (2011).
Behavioral and neural correlates of communication via
pointing. PLoS One, 6(3), e17719.
DeLeon, J., Gottesman, R. F., Kleinman, J. T., Newhart,
M., Davis, C., Heidler-Gary, J., et al. (2007). Neural re-
gions essential for distinct cognitive processes underlying
picture naming. Brain, 130(5), 1408-1422.
Denckla, M. B. (1972). Color-naming in dyslexic boys. Cor-
tex, 8(2), 164-176.
Denckla, M., & Rudel, R. (1976a). Naming of pictured ob-
jects by dyslexic and other learning disabled children.
Brain and Language, 3, 1-15.
Denckla, M., & Rudel, R. (1976b). Rapid automatized nam-
ing (R.A.N.): Dyslexia di erentiated from other learning
disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471-479.
Dougherty, R. F., Ben-Shachar, M., Deutsch, G. K., Hernan-
dez, A., Fox, G. R., & Wandell, B. A. (2007). Temporal-
callosal pathway di usivity predicts phonological skills
in children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci-
ences, 104(20), 8556-8561.
Felton, R., & Brown, L. (1990). Phonological processes as
predictors of speci c reading skills in children at risk for
reading failure. Reading and Writing, 2, 39-59.
Fox, B., & Routh, D. (1976). Phonemic analysis and syn-
thesis as word attack skills. Journal of Educational Psy-
chology, 68, 70-74.
Gentner, D. (1982). Why nouns are learned before verbs:
linguistic relativity versus natural partitioning. In:
Kuczaj S (Ed.) Language Development. Hillsdale, NJ:
Earlbaum.
Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., Cui, Y., & Papadopoulos, T.
C. (2013). Why is rapid automatized naming related
to reading? Journal of experimental child psychology,
115(1), 218-225.
Georgiou, G., Parrila, R., & Kirby, J. (2006). Rapid naming
speed components and early reading acquisition. Scien-
ti c Studies in Reading, 10(2), 199-220.
Georgiou, G., Parrila, R., & Kirby, J. (2009). RAN compo-
nents and reading development from Grade 3 to Grade
5: What underlies the relationship? Scienti c Studies
in Reading, 13, 508-534.
Geschwind, N., & Fusillo, M. (1966). Color naming defects
in association with alexia. Archives of Neurology, 15,
137-146.
Golinko , R. M. & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2008). How toddlers be-
gin to learn verbs. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(10),
397-403.
Hammill, D. D., Mather, N., Allen, E. A., & Roberts, R.
(2002). Using Semantics, Grammar, Phonology, and
Rapid Naming Tasks to Predict Word Identi cation.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(2), 121.
Kail, R., Hall, L. K., & Caskey, B. J. (1999). Processing
speed, exposure to print, and naming speed. Applied
Psycholinguistics, 20, 303-314.
Katz, W. F., Curtiss, S., & Tallal, P. (1992). Rapid au-
tomatized naming and gesture by normal and language-
impaired children. Brain and Language, 43(4), 623-
641.
Kirby, J. R., Parrila, R. K., & Pfei er, S. L. (2003). Naming
speed and phonological awareness as predictors of read-
ing development. Journal of Educational Psychology,
95(3), 453-464.
Kuppuraj, S., & Shanbal, C. S. (2010). Dyslexia assessment
pro le for Indian children. Student research at AIISH
Mysore, Volume VII: 2008-2009, Part-B, Speech Lan-
guage Pathology. 115-129.
Lahey, M., & Edwards, J. (1996). Why do children with
speci c language impairment name pictures more slowly
than their peers? Journal of Speech and Hearing Re-
search, 39(5), 1081-1098.
Liberman, I, Shankweiller, D., & Liberman, L. (1989).
The alphabetic principle and learning to read. In D.P.
Shankweiler & I. Liberman (Eds.), Phonology and Read-
ing Disability: Solving the Reading Puzzle (pp. 1-33).
Evanston: International Academy for research in Learn-
ing Disabilities.
Loss, M., Esserman, D., & Piven, J. (2010). Rapid autom-
atized naming as an index of genetic liability to autism.
Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2(2), 109-
116.
Mann, V., & Liberman, I. (1984). Phonological awareness
and verbal short term memory. Journal of Learning Dis-
abilities, 17, 592-599.
Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (2000). Long-term learn-
ing in dyslexic children. European Journal of Cognitive
Psychology, 12(3), 357-393.
Norton, E. S., & Wolf, M. (2012). Rapid Automa-
tized Naming (RAN) and reading
uency: Implications
for understanding and treatment of reading disabili-
ties. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 427-452. doi:
10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100431
Roberts, R., & Mather, N. (1997). Orthographic dyslexia:
The neglected subtype. Learning Disabilities Practice,
12, 236-250.
Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia. New York:
Random House.
Siddaiah, A., & Padakannaya, P. (2015). Rapid Automa-
tized Naming and Reading: A Review. Psychological
Studies, 60(1), 70-76.
Siddaiah, A., Saldanha, M., Venkatesh, S. K., Ramachandra,
N. B., & Padakannaya, P. (2016). Development of rapid
automatized naming (RAN) in simultaneous Kannada-
English biliterate children. Journal of psycholinguistic
research, 45(1), 177-187.
Singhi, P., Kumar, M., Malhi, P., & Kumar, R. (2007).
Utility of the WHO Ten Questions Screen for Disabil-
ity Detection in Rural Community-the North Indian Ex-
perience. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 53(6), 383-
387.
Stanovich, K., Cunningham, A.E., & Feeman, D. (1984). In-
telligence, cognitive skills and reading progress. Reading
Research Quarterly, 19, 279-303.
Torgesen, J. K. (1999). Phonologically based reading disabil-
ities: Toward an integrated theory of one kind of learning
disability. In L. Spear-Swerling & R. J. Sterberg (Eds.),
Perspectives on learning disabilities (pp. 106-135). New
Haven, CT: Westview Press.
Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Burgess, S.,
& Hecht, S. (1997). Contributions of phonological aware-
ness and rapid automatic naming ability to the growth
of word-reading skills in second-to fth-grade children.
Scienti c Studies of Reading, 1(2), 161-185.
Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R.K. & Rashotte, C.A. (1994).
Longitudinal studies of phonological processing and
reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 276-
286.
Umek, L. M., Fekonja-Peklaj, U., & Podlesek, A. (2013).
Characteristics of early vocabulary and grammar de-
velopment in Slovenian-speaking infants and toddlers:
a CDI-adaptation study. Journal of Child Language,
40(4), 779-798.
Venkatesan, S. (2011). Socio Economic Status Scale-Mysore,
AIISH. Revised version of `NIMH Socio Economic Status
Scale-1993'. Secunderabad: NIMH.
Wagner, R.K., & Torgesen, J.K. (1987). The nature of
phonological processing and its causal role in the ac-
quisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101,
192-212.
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K. & Rashotte, C.A. (1999).
Comprehensive test of phonological processing. Austin,
TX: pro-ed.
Wiig, E. H., Semel, E. M., & Nystrom, L. (1982). Compar-
ison of rapid naming abilities in language-learning dis-
abled and academically achieving eight-year-olds. Lan-
guage Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 13(1):
11-23.
Wolf, M. (1996). A provisional, integrative
account of phonological and naming-speed
de cits in dyslexia: Implications for diagno-
sis and intervention. In B. Blachman (Ed.),
https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/ijdhd.ahead-of-
print/ijdhd-2016-0030/ijdhd-2016-0030.xml.
Wolf, M. (2001). Seven dimensions of time. In M. Wolf
(Ed.), Dyslexia, Fluency and the Brain. Timmonium,
MD: York Press.
Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. (1999). The `double-de cit hypoth-
esis' for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educa-
tional Psychology, 91, 1-24.
Wolf, M., Bowers, P. G., & Biddle, K. (2000). Naming-speed
processes, timing, and reading. Journal of Learning Dis-
abilities, 33(4), 387-407.
Wolf, M., Goldberg O'Rourke, A., Gidney, C., Lovett, M.,
Cirino, P., & Morris, R. (2002). The second de cit: an
investigation of the independence of phonological and
naming-speed de cits in developmental dyslexia. Read-
ing and Writing, 15, 43-72.
Yopp, H.K. (1988). The validity and reliability of phone-
mic awareness tests. Reading Research Quarterly, 23,
159-176.
Zaretsky, E., Velleman, S. L., & Curro, K. (2010). Through
the magnifying glass: Underlying literacy de cits and
remediation potential in Childhood Apraxia of Speech.
International Journal of Speech Language Pathology,
12(1), 58-68.
(2001). The double de cit theory of reading does not
t all. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16,
152-160.
Allor, J. H. (2002). The relationships of phonemic aware-
ness and rapid naming to reading development. Learn-
ing Disabilities Quarterly, 25(1), 47-57.
Aroujo, S., Inacio, F., Francisco, Faisca, L., Peterson, K.
M., & Reis, A. (2011). Component processes subserving
rapid automatized naming in dyslexic and non-dyslexic
readers. Dyslexia, 17(3), 242-255.
Asta ev, S. V., Shulman, G. L., Stanley, C. M., Snyder, A.
Z., Van Essen, D. C., & Corbetta, M. (2003). Func-
tional organization of human intraparietal and frontal
cortex for attending, looking, and pointing. The Jour-
nal of Neuroscience, 23(11), 4689-4699.
Baldo, J. V., Arevalo, A., Patterson, J. P., & Dronkers,
N. F. (2013). Grey and white matter correlates of pic-
ture naming: evidence from a voxel-based lesion anal-
ysis of the Boston Naming Test. Cortex, 49(3), 658-
667.
Biddappa, P. M., Seth, D., & Manjula, R. (2016). Rapid au-
tomatized processing of nouns and verbs in typical chil-
dren. International Journal on Disability and Human
Development. doi: 10.1515/ijdhd-2016-0030.
Bornstein, M. H., Cote, L. R., Maital, S., Painter, K., Par, S-
Y., Pascual, L., et al. (2004). Cross-linguistic analysis of
vocabulary in young children: Spanish, Dutch, French,
Hebrew, Italian, Korean, and American English. Child
Development, 75(4), 1115-39.
Bowers, P. (1996). The e ects of single and double de cits
in phonemic awareness and naming speed on new tests
of orthographic knowledge. Paper presented to the An-
nual Meeting of the Society for the Scienti c Study of
Reading held in New York
Bowers, P. G. (2001). Exploration of the basis for rapid nam-
ing's relationship to reading. In M.Wolf (Ed.), Dyslexia,
Fluency and the Brain (pp. 41-64). Timonium, MD:
York Press.
Bowers, P., & Wolf, M. (1993). Theoretical links among
naming speed, precise timing mechanisms and ortho-
graphic skills in dyslexia. Reading and Writing: An
Interdisciplinary Journal, 5, 69-85.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. (1985). Rhyme and reason in
reading and spelling (No. 1). University of Michigan
Press.
Castles, A., & Coltheart, M. (2004). Is there a causal link
from phonological awareness to success in learning to
read? Cognition, 91(1), 77-111.
Catts, H. W., Gillispie, M., Leonard, L. B., Kail, R. V., &
Miller, C. A. (2002). The role of speed of processing,
rapid naming, and phonological awareness in reading
achievement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(6),
510-525.
Cutting, L. E., & Denckla, M. B. (2001). The relationship
of rapid serial naming and word reading in normally de-
veloping readers: an exploratory model. Reading and
Writing, 14(7-8), 673-705.
De Langavant, L. C., Remy, P., Trinkler, I., McIntyre, J.,
Dupoux, E., Berthoz, A., & Bachoud-Levi, A. C. (2011).
Behavioral and neural correlates of communication via
pointing. PLoS One, 6(3), e17719.
DeLeon, J., Gottesman, R. F., Kleinman, J. T., Newhart,
M., Davis, C., Heidler-Gary, J., et al. (2007). Neural re-
gions essential for distinct cognitive processes underlying
picture naming. Brain, 130(5), 1408-1422.
Denckla, M. B. (1972). Color-naming in dyslexic boys. Cor-
tex, 8(2), 164-176.
Denckla, M., & Rudel, R. (1976a). Naming of pictured ob-
jects by dyslexic and other learning disabled children.
Brain and Language, 3, 1-15.
Denckla, M., & Rudel, R. (1976b). Rapid automatized nam-
ing (R.A.N.): Dyslexia di erentiated from other learning
disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471-479.
Dougherty, R. F., Ben-Shachar, M., Deutsch, G. K., Hernan-
dez, A., Fox, G. R., & Wandell, B. A. (2007). Temporal-
callosal pathway di usivity predicts phonological skills
in children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci-
ences, 104(20), 8556-8561.
Felton, R., & Brown, L. (1990). Phonological processes as
predictors of speci c reading skills in children at risk for
reading failure. Reading and Writing, 2, 39-59.
Fox, B., & Routh, D. (1976). Phonemic analysis and syn-
thesis as word attack skills. Journal of Educational Psy-
chology, 68, 70-74.
Gentner, D. (1982). Why nouns are learned before verbs:
linguistic relativity versus natural partitioning. In:
Kuczaj S (Ed.) Language Development. Hillsdale, NJ:
Earlbaum.
Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., Cui, Y., & Papadopoulos, T.
C. (2013). Why is rapid automatized naming related
to reading? Journal of experimental child psychology,
115(1), 218-225.
Georgiou, G., Parrila, R., & Kirby, J. (2006). Rapid naming
speed components and early reading acquisition. Scien-
ti c Studies in Reading, 10(2), 199-220.
Georgiou, G., Parrila, R., & Kirby, J. (2009). RAN compo-
nents and reading development from Grade 3 to Grade
5: What underlies the relationship? Scienti c Studies
in Reading, 13, 508-534.
Geschwind, N., & Fusillo, M. (1966). Color naming defects
in association with alexia. Archives of Neurology, 15,
137-146.
Golinko , R. M. & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2008). How toddlers be-
gin to learn verbs. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(10),
397-403.
Hammill, D. D., Mather, N., Allen, E. A., & Roberts, R.
(2002). Using Semantics, Grammar, Phonology, and
Rapid Naming Tasks to Predict Word Identi cation.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(2), 121.
Kail, R., Hall, L. K., & Caskey, B. J. (1999). Processing
speed, exposure to print, and naming speed. Applied
Psycholinguistics, 20, 303-314.
Katz, W. F., Curtiss, S., & Tallal, P. (1992). Rapid au-
tomatized naming and gesture by normal and language-
impaired children. Brain and Language, 43(4), 623-
641.
Kirby, J. R., Parrila, R. K., & Pfei er, S. L. (2003). Naming
speed and phonological awareness as predictors of read-
ing development. Journal of Educational Psychology,
95(3), 453-464.
Kuppuraj, S., & Shanbal, C. S. (2010). Dyslexia assessment
pro le for Indian children. Student research at AIISH
Mysore, Volume VII: 2008-2009, Part-B, Speech Lan-
guage Pathology. 115-129.
Lahey, M., & Edwards, J. (1996). Why do children with
speci c language impairment name pictures more slowly
than their peers? Journal of Speech and Hearing Re-
search, 39(5), 1081-1098.
Liberman, I, Shankweiller, D., & Liberman, L. (1989).
The alphabetic principle and learning to read. In D.P.
Shankweiler & I. Liberman (Eds.), Phonology and Read-
ing Disability: Solving the Reading Puzzle (pp. 1-33).
Evanston: International Academy for research in Learn-
ing Disabilities.
Loss, M., Esserman, D., & Piven, J. (2010). Rapid autom-
atized naming as an index of genetic liability to autism.
Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2(2), 109-
116.
Mann, V., & Liberman, I. (1984). Phonological awareness
and verbal short term memory. Journal of Learning Dis-
abilities, 17, 592-599.
Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (2000). Long-term learn-
ing in dyslexic children. European Journal of Cognitive
Psychology, 12(3), 357-393.
Norton, E. S., & Wolf, M. (2012). Rapid Automa-
tized Naming (RAN) and reading
uency: Implications
for understanding and treatment of reading disabili-
ties. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 427-452. doi:
10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100431
Roberts, R., & Mather, N. (1997). Orthographic dyslexia:
The neglected subtype. Learning Disabilities Practice,
12, 236-250.
Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia. New York:
Random House.
Siddaiah, A., & Padakannaya, P. (2015). Rapid Automa-
tized Naming and Reading: A Review. Psychological
Studies, 60(1), 70-76.
Siddaiah, A., Saldanha, M., Venkatesh, S. K., Ramachandra,
N. B., & Padakannaya, P. (2016). Development of rapid
automatized naming (RAN) in simultaneous Kannada-
English biliterate children. Journal of psycholinguistic
research, 45(1), 177-187.
Singhi, P., Kumar, M., Malhi, P., & Kumar, R. (2007).
Utility of the WHO Ten Questions Screen for Disabil-
ity Detection in Rural Community-the North Indian Ex-
perience. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 53(6), 383-
387.
Stanovich, K., Cunningham, A.E., & Feeman, D. (1984). In-
telligence, cognitive skills and reading progress. Reading
Research Quarterly, 19, 279-303.
Torgesen, J. K. (1999). Phonologically based reading disabil-
ities: Toward an integrated theory of one kind of learning
disability. In L. Spear-Swerling & R. J. Sterberg (Eds.),
Perspectives on learning disabilities (pp. 106-135). New
Haven, CT: Westview Press.
Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Burgess, S.,
& Hecht, S. (1997). Contributions of phonological aware-
ness and rapid automatic naming ability to the growth
of word-reading skills in second-to fth-grade children.
Scienti c Studies of Reading, 1(2), 161-185.
Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R.K. & Rashotte, C.A. (1994).
Longitudinal studies of phonological processing and
reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 276-
286.
Umek, L. M., Fekonja-Peklaj, U., & Podlesek, A. (2013).
Characteristics of early vocabulary and grammar de-
velopment in Slovenian-speaking infants and toddlers:
a CDI-adaptation study. Journal of Child Language,
40(4), 779-798.
Venkatesan, S. (2011). Socio Economic Status Scale-Mysore,
AIISH. Revised version of `NIMH Socio Economic Status
Scale-1993'. Secunderabad: NIMH.
Wagner, R.K., & Torgesen, J.K. (1987). The nature of
phonological processing and its causal role in the ac-
quisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101,
192-212.
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K. & Rashotte, C.A. (1999).
Comprehensive test of phonological processing. Austin,
TX: pro-ed.
Wiig, E. H., Semel, E. M., & Nystrom, L. (1982). Compar-
ison of rapid naming abilities in language-learning dis-
abled and academically achieving eight-year-olds. Lan-
guage Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 13(1):
11-23.
Wolf, M. (1996). A provisional, integrative
account of phonological and naming-speed
de cits in dyslexia: Implications for diagno-
sis and intervention. In B. Blachman (Ed.),
https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/ijdhd.ahead-of-
print/ijdhd-2016-0030/ijdhd-2016-0030.xml.
Wolf, M. (2001). Seven dimensions of time. In M. Wolf
(Ed.), Dyslexia, Fluency and the Brain. Timmonium,
MD: York Press.
Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. (1999). The `double-de cit hypoth-
esis' for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educa-
tional Psychology, 91, 1-24.
Wolf, M., Bowers, P. G., & Biddle, K. (2000). Naming-speed
processes, timing, and reading. Journal of Learning Dis-
abilities, 33(4), 387-407.
Wolf, M., Goldberg O'Rourke, A., Gidney, C., Lovett, M.,
Cirino, P., & Morris, R. (2002). The second de cit: an
investigation of the independence of phonological and
naming-speed de cits in developmental dyslexia. Read-
ing and Writing, 15, 43-72.
Yopp, H.K. (1988). The validity and reliability of phone-
mic awareness tests. Reading Research Quarterly, 23,
159-176.
Zaretsky, E., Velleman, S. L., & Curro, K. (2010). Through
the magnifying glass: Underlying literacy de cits and
remediation potential in Childhood Apraxia of Speech.
International Journal of Speech Language Pathology,
12(1), 58-68.