Vol 29 No 1 (2010): .
Language
Keywords
- dementia,
- conversational speech,
- quantitative measures
How to Cite
Deepa M.S., & Shyamala K.C. (1). Complex Discourse Production in Persons with Mild Dementia: Measures of Richness of Vocabulary. Journal of All India Institute of Speech and Hearing, 29(1), 12-22. Retrieved from http://203.129.241.91/jaiish/index.php/aiish/article/view/399
Abstract
Dementia is characterized by the breakdown of intellectual and communicative functioning accompanied by personality change (DSM IV, American Psychiatric Association, 1994).Differentiating mild dementia from normal cognition in aging is a compelling social, clinical, and scientific concern. The present study aimed to determine whether a complex discourse production task distinguished normal older adults from adults with dementia with the measures of richness of vocabulary. Considered for the study were 10 healthy elderly adults and 10 persons with mild dementia. Spontaneous, conversational speech in dementia participants and healthy elderly was analyzed using three linguistic measures of richness of vocabulary. These were evaluated for their usefulness in discriminating between healthy and persons with dementia. The measureswere, type token ratio (TTR), Brunet's index (W) and Honore's Statistic (R). Results suggest that these measures offer a sensitive method of assessing spontaneous speech output in dementia. Comparison between dementia and healthy elderly participants demonstrates that these measures discriminate well between these groups. These findings also suggest that performance on a complex elicited discourse production task uncovers subtle differences in the abilities of persons with dementia (mild) such that measures of length and quality differentiated them from individuals with normal cognition. This method serves as a diagnostic and prognostic tool and as a measure for use in clinical trials.
References
Alzheimer, A. (1907). Of a particular disease of the cerebral cortex. Zentralblatt vur Nervenbeilkunde und. Psychiatric, 30, 177-179.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (1990). Interdisciplinary approaches to brain damage. American Speech and Hearing Association, 32 (Supplement 2),(3).
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association(2005). Roles of speech-language pathologists in the identification, diagnosis, and treatment of individuals with cognitive-communication disorders: Position statement. American Speech and Hearing Association Supplement, 25, 13.
Appell, J., Kertesz, A. & Fisman, M. (1982). A study of language functioning in Alzheimer patients. Brain and Language, 17, 73-91.
Barr, A. & Brandt, J. (1996). Word list generation deficits in dementia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18, 810-822.
Bayles, K. A. (1982). Language functions in senile dementia. Brain and Language, 16, 265-280.
Bayles, K. A., Kaszniak, A. W. & Tomoeda, C. K. (1987). Communication and Cognition in Normal Aging and Dementia. Boston, MA, USA: College- Hill Press.
Bayles, K. A., Tomoeda, C. K., Salmon, D. P., & Jacobs, D. (1989). Semantic and letter category naming in Alzheimer's patients : a predictable difference. Developmental Neuropsychology, 54, 335 -347.
Becker, J. T., Huff, F. J., Nebes, R. D., Holland, A. L. & Boller, F. (1988). Neurological function in Alzheimer's disease: pattern of impairment and rates of progress. Archives of Neurology, 45, 263 -268
Blanken, G., Dittman, J., Haas, J. C. & Wallesch, C. W. (1987). Spontaneous speech in senile dementia and aphasia: Implication for a neurolinguistic model of language production. Cognition, 27, 247-274.
Bloom, R., Obler, L., DeSanti, S., & Ehrlich, J. (1994). Discourse analysis and applications: Studies in adult clinical populations. Hilldale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum.
Brookshire, R. H. (1997). Introduction to neurogenic communication disorders (5th ed.). St. Louis, MS: Mosby-Year Book, Inc.
Brownell, H. H., Michel, D., Powelson, J., & Gardner, H. (1983). Surprise but not coherence: Sensitivity to verbal humor in right-hemisphere patients. Brain and Language, 18(1), 20-27.
Brownell, H., & Joanette, Y. (1993). Narrative discourse in neurologically impaired and normal aging adults. San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group.
Brunet, E. (1978). Le Vocabilaire de jean Giraudoux. Structure et Evolution (Geneve: Slatkine).
Bucks, R. S., Singh, S., Cuerden, J. M., & Wilcock, G. K. (2000). Analysis of spontaneous, conversational speech in dementia of Alzheimer's type: Evaluation of an objectivetechnique for analysing lexical performance.Aphasiology, 14, 1, 71-91.
Calderon, J. R Perry, S Erzinclioglu, Berrios, G., Dening, T. & Hodges, J. (2001). Perception, attention, and working memory are disproportionately impaired in dementia with Lewy bodies compared with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 70(2): 157-164.
Chapman, S. B., Culhane, K. A., Levin, H. S., Harward, H., Mendelsohn, D., Ewing-Cobbs, L.,Fletcher, J. M., & Bruce, D. (1992). Narrative discourse after closed head injury in children and adolescents. Brain and Language, 43, 42-65.
Cherney, L., Shadden, B., & Coelho, C. (1998). Analyzing discourse in communicatively impaired adults. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
Coelho, C. A., Liles, B. Z., & Duffy, R. J. (1991).The use of discourse analyses for the evaluation of higher level traumatically brain-injured adults. Brain Injury, 5, 381-391.
Coelho, C. A., Liles, B. Z., & Duffy, R. J. (1995). Impairments of discourse abilities and executive functions in traumatically brain-injured adults. Brain Injury, 9 (5), 471- 477.
Crawford, J. R. (1998). Introduction to the assessment of attention and executive functioning. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 8(3), 209- 211.
Crioisile, B., Ska, B., Brabant, M. J., Duchene, A.,Lepage, Y., Aimard, G. & Trillet, M. (1996). Comparative study of oral and written picture description in patients with Alzheimer's diasease. Brain and Language, 53, 315-323.
Cummings, J. L., Benson, D. F., Hill, M. A. & Read, S. (1985). Aphasia in dementia of Alzheimer's type. Neurology, 29, 315-323.
Cummings, J. L. (2000). Cognitive and behavioural heterogeneity in Alzheimer's disease: Seeking the neurobiological basis. Neurobiological Ageing, 21(6), 845-861.
De Santi, S., Koeing, L., Obler., L. K. & Goldberger, J. (1994). Cohesive devices and conversational discourse in Alzheimer's disease. In R. L. Bloom, L. K. Obler, S. De Santi & J. S. Erlich (Eds)Discourse analysis and applications: Studies in adult clinical populations. (Hillsdale NJ, USA:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
Ehrlich, J., & Barry, P. (1989). Rating communication behaviors in the head-injured adult. Brain Injury, 3 (2), 193-198.
Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E. & McHugh, P. R. (1975).Mini-Mental state. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinical. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12, 189-198.
Glosser, G. & Deser, T. (1992). A comparison of changes in macrolinguistic and microlinguistic aspects of discourse production in normal ageing. Journal of Gerontology, 47(4), 266-272.
Godefroy, O. (2003). Frontal syndrome and disorders of executive functions. Journal of Neurology, 250(1), 16.
Harris, J. L., Rogers, W. A., & Qualls, C. D. (1998). Written language comprehension in younger and older adults. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 603-617.
Hartley, L. I., & Jensen, P. J. (1991). Narrative and procedural discourse after closed head injury. Brain Injury, 5, 267-285.
Hier, D. B., Hagenlocker, K. & Shindler, A. G. (1985). Language disintegration in dementia: Effects of etiology and severity. Brain and Language, 25, 117-123.
Hodges, J. R., Salmon, D. P. & Butters, N. (1991). The nature of the naming deficit in Alzheimer's and Huntington's disease. Brain, 114, 1547-1558.
Honore, A. (1979). Some simple measures of richness of vocabulary. Association of Literary and Linguistic and Linguistic computing, 11, 45- 60.
Hughes C. P., Berg L., Danziger W. L.,Coben L. A., Martin R. L. (1982). A new clinical scale for the staging of dementia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 566-572.
Hutchinson, J. M. & Jensen, M. (1980). A pragmatic evaluation of discourse communication in normal and senile older in anursing home. In L. K. Obler and M. Albert (Eds). Language and Communication in the Older .Boston DC: Heath and Co.
Irigaray, L. (1973). Le Language des dements. The Hague and Co.:Mouton.
Joanette, Y., & Brownell, H. H. (1990). Discourse ability and brain damage: theoretical and empirical perspectives. New York: Springer.
Johnson, M. K., Bonilla, J. L. & Hermann, A. M. (1997). Effects of relatedness and number of distracters on attribute judgements in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychology. 11, 392-399.
Kemper, S. (1992). Language and aging. In F.I.M. Craik & T.A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 213-270). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Kempler, D. & Zelinski, E. M. (1994). Language in dementia and normal aging. In F. A. Huppert, C. Baryne & D. W. O'Connor (Eds). Dementia and normal aging. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kertesz, A., Appell. J. & Fisman, M. (1986). The dissolution of language in Alzheimer's disease. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 13, 415-418.
Liles, B. Z., Coelho, C. A., Duffy, F. J.,&Zalagens, M. R. (1989). Effects of elicitation procedures on the narratives of normal and closed head-injured adults. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders,54, 356- 366.
Martin, A. & Fedio, P. (1983). Word production and comprehension in Alzheimer's disease: the breakdown of semantic knowledge. Brain and Language. 19, 124-141.
Martin, A. (1992). Semantic knowledge in patients with Alzheimer's disease: evidence for degradedrepresentations. In L. Backman (Ed.). Memory functioning in dementia. Amsterdam: North- Holland: Elsevier Science.
McDonald, S. (1993). Pragmatic skills after closed head injury: ability to meet the informational needs of the listener. Brain and Language, 44 (1), 28- 46.
Mentis, M., & Prutting, C. A. (1987). Cohesion in the discourse of normal and head-injured adults.Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 30, 88- 98.
Mentis, M., & Prutting, C. A. (1991). Analysis of topic as illustrated in a head-injured and a normal adult. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34, 583-595.
Miller, J., & Inglesias, A. (2006). Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT), English and Spanish (Version 9) [computer software]. Language Analysis Lab., University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Milton, S. B., Prutting, C. A., & Binder, G. M. (1984). Appraisal of communicative competence in head injured adults. In R. H. Brookshire (Ed.), Clinical aphasiology conference proceedings. Minneapolis, MN: BRK Publishers.
Nebes, R. D. & Brady, C. B. (1988). Integrity of semantic fields in Alzheimer's disease. Cortex,25, 305-315.
Nicholas, M., Obler, L. K., Albert, M. & Helm- Estabrooks, N. (1985). Empty speech in Alzheimer's disease and fluent aphasia. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 28, 405-410.
Obler, L. K. (1983). Language and brain dysfunction in dementia. In S. Segalowitz (Ed.). Language function and brain organization. New York: Academic Press.
Patry, R., & Nespoulous, J. (1990). Discourse analysis in linguistics: historical and theoretical background. In Y. Joanette & H. H. Brownell (Eds.). Discourse ability and brain damage (pp.327). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Penn, C., & Cleary, J. (1988). Compensatory strategies in the language of closed head injured patients. Brain Injury, 2 (1), 3 - 17.
Perry, R.J. & Hodges, J.R. (1994).Attentional and executive deficits in dementia of Alzheimer's type. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 57, 416-418.
Phillips, L. H., Della Sala, S. & Trivelli, C. (1996). Fluency deficits in patients with Alzheimer's disease and frontal lobe lesions. European Journal of Neurology, 3, 102-108.
Ripich, D. N. & Terrell, B. Y. (1988). Cohesion and coherence in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech and hearing Disorders, 53, 8-14.
Ripich, D. N., Vertes, D., Whitehouse, P., Fulton, S. & Ekelman, B. (1991). Turn taking and speech act patterns in the discourse of senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type patients. Brain andLanguage. 40, 330- 343.
Roger R.D., & Hodges, J.R. (1994). Specific cognitive deficits in mild frontal variant frontotemporal dementia. pp. 149-185. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers.
Romero, B. & Kurz, A. (1996). Deterioration in spontaneous speech in AD patients during a 1- year follow-up: Homogeneity of profiles and factors associated with progression. Dementia. 7, 35-40.
Rusted, J., Gaskell, M., Watts, S., & Sheppard, L. (2000). People with dementia use schemata to support episodic memory. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 11(6), 350-356.
Schwartz , M. F., Maric, O. S. M. & Gordon, B. (1979). Dissociation of language function in dementia: a case study. Brain and Language. 7, 277-306.
Sevush, S., Leve, N. & Brickman, A. (1994). Age at disease onset and pattern of cognitive impairment in probable Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 5, 66-72.
Silveri, M. C., Reali, G. Jenner, C. & Puopolo M (2007). Risk factors for transitions from normal to mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry Neurology, 20(2), 67 - 75.
Smith, S., Faust, M., Beeman, M., Kennedy, L. & Perry, D. (1995). A property level analysis of lexical semantic representation in Alzheimer's disease. Brain and language. 49, 263-279.
Thompson, I. M. (1987). Language in dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2, 145-161.
Ulatowska, H. K., Allard, L., & Chapman, S. B. (1990). Narrative and procedural discourse in aphasia. In Y. Joanette & H. H. Brownell (Eds.). Discourse ability and brain damage (pp.180-198). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Ulatowska, H. K., North, A. J., & Macaluso-Haynes, S. (1981). Production of narrative and procedural discourse in aphasia. Brain and Language, 13, 345-371.
Ulatowska, H. K. & Chapman, S. B. (1991). Discourse studies. In R. Lubinski (ed.). Dementia and Communication. Philadelphia: B. D. Decker, Inc.
Vitaliano, P. P., Breen, A. R., Albert, M. S., Russo, J. & Prinz, P. N. (1984). Memory, Attention, and Functional Status in Community-residing Alzheimer Type Dementia Patients and Optimally Healthy Aged Individuals. Journal of Gerontology, 39, 1, 58-64.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (1990). Interdisciplinary approaches to brain damage. American Speech and Hearing Association, 32 (Supplement 2),(3).
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association(2005). Roles of speech-language pathologists in the identification, diagnosis, and treatment of individuals with cognitive-communication disorders: Position statement. American Speech and Hearing Association Supplement, 25, 13.
Appell, J., Kertesz, A. & Fisman, M. (1982). A study of language functioning in Alzheimer patients. Brain and Language, 17, 73-91.
Barr, A. & Brandt, J. (1996). Word list generation deficits in dementia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18, 810-822.
Bayles, K. A. (1982). Language functions in senile dementia. Brain and Language, 16, 265-280.
Bayles, K. A., Kaszniak, A. W. & Tomoeda, C. K. (1987). Communication and Cognition in Normal Aging and Dementia. Boston, MA, USA: College- Hill Press.
Bayles, K. A., Tomoeda, C. K., Salmon, D. P., & Jacobs, D. (1989). Semantic and letter category naming in Alzheimer's patients : a predictable difference. Developmental Neuropsychology, 54, 335 -347.
Becker, J. T., Huff, F. J., Nebes, R. D., Holland, A. L. & Boller, F. (1988). Neurological function in Alzheimer's disease: pattern of impairment and rates of progress. Archives of Neurology, 45, 263 -268
Blanken, G., Dittman, J., Haas, J. C. & Wallesch, C. W. (1987). Spontaneous speech in senile dementia and aphasia: Implication for a neurolinguistic model of language production. Cognition, 27, 247-274.
Bloom, R., Obler, L., DeSanti, S., & Ehrlich, J. (1994). Discourse analysis and applications: Studies in adult clinical populations. Hilldale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum.
Brookshire, R. H. (1997). Introduction to neurogenic communication disorders (5th ed.). St. Louis, MS: Mosby-Year Book, Inc.
Brownell, H. H., Michel, D., Powelson, J., & Gardner, H. (1983). Surprise but not coherence: Sensitivity to verbal humor in right-hemisphere patients. Brain and Language, 18(1), 20-27.
Brownell, H., & Joanette, Y. (1993). Narrative discourse in neurologically impaired and normal aging adults. San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group.
Brunet, E. (1978). Le Vocabilaire de jean Giraudoux. Structure et Evolution (Geneve: Slatkine).
Bucks, R. S., Singh, S., Cuerden, J. M., & Wilcock, G. K. (2000). Analysis of spontaneous, conversational speech in dementia of Alzheimer's type: Evaluation of an objectivetechnique for analysing lexical performance.Aphasiology, 14, 1, 71-91.
Calderon, J. R Perry, S Erzinclioglu, Berrios, G., Dening, T. & Hodges, J. (2001). Perception, attention, and working memory are disproportionately impaired in dementia with Lewy bodies compared with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 70(2): 157-164.
Chapman, S. B., Culhane, K. A., Levin, H. S., Harward, H., Mendelsohn, D., Ewing-Cobbs, L.,Fletcher, J. M., & Bruce, D. (1992). Narrative discourse after closed head injury in children and adolescents. Brain and Language, 43, 42-65.
Cherney, L., Shadden, B., & Coelho, C. (1998). Analyzing discourse in communicatively impaired adults. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
Coelho, C. A., Liles, B. Z., & Duffy, R. J. (1991).The use of discourse analyses for the evaluation of higher level traumatically brain-injured adults. Brain Injury, 5, 381-391.
Coelho, C. A., Liles, B. Z., & Duffy, R. J. (1995). Impairments of discourse abilities and executive functions in traumatically brain-injured adults. Brain Injury, 9 (5), 471- 477.
Crawford, J. R. (1998). Introduction to the assessment of attention and executive functioning. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 8(3), 209- 211.
Crioisile, B., Ska, B., Brabant, M. J., Duchene, A.,Lepage, Y., Aimard, G. & Trillet, M. (1996). Comparative study of oral and written picture description in patients with Alzheimer's diasease. Brain and Language, 53, 315-323.
Cummings, J. L., Benson, D. F., Hill, M. A. & Read, S. (1985). Aphasia in dementia of Alzheimer's type. Neurology, 29, 315-323.
Cummings, J. L. (2000). Cognitive and behavioural heterogeneity in Alzheimer's disease: Seeking the neurobiological basis. Neurobiological Ageing, 21(6), 845-861.
De Santi, S., Koeing, L., Obler., L. K. & Goldberger, J. (1994). Cohesive devices and conversational discourse in Alzheimer's disease. In R. L. Bloom, L. K. Obler, S. De Santi & J. S. Erlich (Eds)Discourse analysis and applications: Studies in adult clinical populations. (Hillsdale NJ, USA:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
Ehrlich, J., & Barry, P. (1989). Rating communication behaviors in the head-injured adult. Brain Injury, 3 (2), 193-198.
Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E. & McHugh, P. R. (1975).Mini-Mental state. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinical. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12, 189-198.
Glosser, G. & Deser, T. (1992). A comparison of changes in macrolinguistic and microlinguistic aspects of discourse production in normal ageing. Journal of Gerontology, 47(4), 266-272.
Godefroy, O. (2003). Frontal syndrome and disorders of executive functions. Journal of Neurology, 250(1), 16.
Harris, J. L., Rogers, W. A., & Qualls, C. D. (1998). Written language comprehension in younger and older adults. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 603-617.
Hartley, L. I., & Jensen, P. J. (1991). Narrative and procedural discourse after closed head injury. Brain Injury, 5, 267-285.
Hier, D. B., Hagenlocker, K. & Shindler, A. G. (1985). Language disintegration in dementia: Effects of etiology and severity. Brain and Language, 25, 117-123.
Hodges, J. R., Salmon, D. P. & Butters, N. (1991). The nature of the naming deficit in Alzheimer's and Huntington's disease. Brain, 114, 1547-1558.
Honore, A. (1979). Some simple measures of richness of vocabulary. Association of Literary and Linguistic and Linguistic computing, 11, 45- 60.
Hughes C. P., Berg L., Danziger W. L.,Coben L. A., Martin R. L. (1982). A new clinical scale for the staging of dementia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 566-572.
Hutchinson, J. M. & Jensen, M. (1980). A pragmatic evaluation of discourse communication in normal and senile older in anursing home. In L. K. Obler and M. Albert (Eds). Language and Communication in the Older .Boston DC: Heath and Co.
Irigaray, L. (1973). Le Language des dements. The Hague and Co.:Mouton.
Joanette, Y., & Brownell, H. H. (1990). Discourse ability and brain damage: theoretical and empirical perspectives. New York: Springer.
Johnson, M. K., Bonilla, J. L. & Hermann, A. M. (1997). Effects of relatedness and number of distracters on attribute judgements in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychology. 11, 392-399.
Kemper, S. (1992). Language and aging. In F.I.M. Craik & T.A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 213-270). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Kempler, D. & Zelinski, E. M. (1994). Language in dementia and normal aging. In F. A. Huppert, C. Baryne & D. W. O'Connor (Eds). Dementia and normal aging. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kertesz, A., Appell. J. & Fisman, M. (1986). The dissolution of language in Alzheimer's disease. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 13, 415-418.
Liles, B. Z., Coelho, C. A., Duffy, F. J.,&Zalagens, M. R. (1989). Effects of elicitation procedures on the narratives of normal and closed head-injured adults. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders,54, 356- 366.
Martin, A. & Fedio, P. (1983). Word production and comprehension in Alzheimer's disease: the breakdown of semantic knowledge. Brain and Language. 19, 124-141.
Martin, A. (1992). Semantic knowledge in patients with Alzheimer's disease: evidence for degradedrepresentations. In L. Backman (Ed.). Memory functioning in dementia. Amsterdam: North- Holland: Elsevier Science.
McDonald, S. (1993). Pragmatic skills after closed head injury: ability to meet the informational needs of the listener. Brain and Language, 44 (1), 28- 46.
Mentis, M., & Prutting, C. A. (1987). Cohesion in the discourse of normal and head-injured adults.Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 30, 88- 98.
Mentis, M., & Prutting, C. A. (1991). Analysis of topic as illustrated in a head-injured and a normal adult. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34, 583-595.
Miller, J., & Inglesias, A. (2006). Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT), English and Spanish (Version 9) [computer software]. Language Analysis Lab., University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Milton, S. B., Prutting, C. A., & Binder, G. M. (1984). Appraisal of communicative competence in head injured adults. In R. H. Brookshire (Ed.), Clinical aphasiology conference proceedings. Minneapolis, MN: BRK Publishers.
Nebes, R. D. & Brady, C. B. (1988). Integrity of semantic fields in Alzheimer's disease. Cortex,25, 305-315.
Nicholas, M., Obler, L. K., Albert, M. & Helm- Estabrooks, N. (1985). Empty speech in Alzheimer's disease and fluent aphasia. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 28, 405-410.
Obler, L. K. (1983). Language and brain dysfunction in dementia. In S. Segalowitz (Ed.). Language function and brain organization. New York: Academic Press.
Patry, R., & Nespoulous, J. (1990). Discourse analysis in linguistics: historical and theoretical background. In Y. Joanette & H. H. Brownell (Eds.). Discourse ability and brain damage (pp.327). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Penn, C., & Cleary, J. (1988). Compensatory strategies in the language of closed head injured patients. Brain Injury, 2 (1), 3 - 17.
Perry, R.J. & Hodges, J.R. (1994).Attentional and executive deficits in dementia of Alzheimer's type. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 57, 416-418.
Phillips, L. H., Della Sala, S. & Trivelli, C. (1996). Fluency deficits in patients with Alzheimer's disease and frontal lobe lesions. European Journal of Neurology, 3, 102-108.
Ripich, D. N. & Terrell, B. Y. (1988). Cohesion and coherence in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech and hearing Disorders, 53, 8-14.
Ripich, D. N., Vertes, D., Whitehouse, P., Fulton, S. & Ekelman, B. (1991). Turn taking and speech act patterns in the discourse of senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type patients. Brain andLanguage. 40, 330- 343.
Roger R.D., & Hodges, J.R. (1994). Specific cognitive deficits in mild frontal variant frontotemporal dementia. pp. 149-185. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers.
Romero, B. & Kurz, A. (1996). Deterioration in spontaneous speech in AD patients during a 1- year follow-up: Homogeneity of profiles and factors associated with progression. Dementia. 7, 35-40.
Rusted, J., Gaskell, M., Watts, S., & Sheppard, L. (2000). People with dementia use schemata to support episodic memory. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 11(6), 350-356.
Schwartz , M. F., Maric, O. S. M. & Gordon, B. (1979). Dissociation of language function in dementia: a case study. Brain and Language. 7, 277-306.
Sevush, S., Leve, N. & Brickman, A. (1994). Age at disease onset and pattern of cognitive impairment in probable Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 5, 66-72.
Silveri, M. C., Reali, G. Jenner, C. & Puopolo M (2007). Risk factors for transitions from normal to mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry Neurology, 20(2), 67 - 75.
Smith, S., Faust, M., Beeman, M., Kennedy, L. & Perry, D. (1995). A property level analysis of lexical semantic representation in Alzheimer's disease. Brain and language. 49, 263-279.
Thompson, I. M. (1987). Language in dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2, 145-161.
Ulatowska, H. K., Allard, L., & Chapman, S. B. (1990). Narrative and procedural discourse in aphasia. In Y. Joanette & H. H. Brownell (Eds.). Discourse ability and brain damage (pp.180-198). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Ulatowska, H. K., North, A. J., & Macaluso-Haynes, S. (1981). Production of narrative and procedural discourse in aphasia. Brain and Language, 13, 345-371.
Ulatowska, H. K. & Chapman, S. B. (1991). Discourse studies. In R. Lubinski (ed.). Dementia and Communication. Philadelphia: B. D. Decker, Inc.
Vitaliano, P. P., Breen, A. R., Albert, M. S., Russo, J. & Prinz, P. N. (1984). Memory, Attention, and Functional Status in Community-residing Alzheimer Type Dementia Patients and Optimally Healthy Aged Individuals. Journal of Gerontology, 39, 1, 58-64.